With reference to examples, suggest reasons for urban decline. (8
marks)
Notes
for answers
Reasons
for urban decline:
Economic
decline
•
movement of employment away from the large conurbations to smaller
urban areas and to rural areas
•
this took place largely in traditional manufacturing industries, formerly based
on coal, steam power and railways
•
the growth of service industries in rural areas and small towns
•
shortage of suitable land and premises in urban areas for new industries
•
the restructuring of industry, and the geographical movement of investment
to new locations in the UK and overseas
•
high unemployment creating a downward spiral.
Population
loss and social decline
•
outmigration of younger, affluent people from inner areas of cities
•
suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation
•
those left behind are the old, the less skilled and the poor.
Therefore,
economic decline of these areas has led to social decline.
A
poor physical environment
•
areas of low-quality housing, empty and derelict properties, vacant factories
and unsightly, overgrown wasteland
•
high levels of vandalism, dereliction, graffiti and flyposting
•
construction of urban motorways, with flyovers, underpasses and networks
of pedestrian walkways
•
all contribute to the bleak concrete-dominated landscape which is unattractive
to investors.
Answers
are likely to be UK based; however, accept any urban context.
Mark
scheme
Level
1 (1-4 marks) (Midpoint 3)
Simple generalised statements of
reasons with no depth or detail, and not attributed to any named area;
or one fully developed reason only.
Level
2 (5-8 marks) (Midpoint 6)
More specific and sophisticated
statements of reasoning which are attributed to a named area(s),
and/or demonstrate greater depth of understanding and/or knowledge.
Evaluate the effectiveness of one
partnership
scheme in achieving urban regeneration. (10 marks)
Notes
for answers
There
is a wide range of partnership schemes involving different partners that
students could refer to, ranging from the City Challenge Partnerships of
the 1990s in the UK, to the modern day Flagship schemes of the 21st century,
to the slightly smaller scale schemes concerning sustainable communities.
Urban Development Corporations of the 1980s were not partnerships
and material based on these should not exceed Level 1.
An
example: Creative Sheffield
The
city of Sheffield is undergoing considerable regeneration in its central area.
The regeneration is to be achieved through a series of public/private
partnerships between Sheffield City Council, Creative Sheffield
(an economic development company), Yorkshire Forward (a
regeneration body) and number of private developers. A Masterplan
was established in 2000 to introduce a period of recovery and
redevelopment in some parts of the city. Improvements have already
taken place in these areas:
•
St Paul.s
Place
•
the Station Gateway (the railway station and the area immediately in front
of it)
•
the Barkers Pool/ City Hall area.
Further
developments are planned including a new retail quarter along The
Moor, several new business areas in St Paul.s
Place and alongside the
River Don, and a new Digital Campus alongside the railway station.
Mark
scheme
Level
1 (1-4 marks) (Midpoint 3)
Simple statements of a regeneration
scheme. No specific detail provided, nor any attempt to
evaluate effectiveness.
Level
2 (5-8 marks) (Midpoint 6)
Specific descriptive statements of
a partnership scheme which can be clearly attributed to a named
example. Evaluation is tentative and implicit.
Level
3 (9-10 marks) (Midpoint 9)
A fully developed answer, with good
elaboration and clear detail of the chosen partnership scheme.
Evaluation of effectiveness is explicit.
Study Figure
4, a
photograph of an area of a city in India.
Using Figure
4 only,
comment
on the
characteristics of the urban landscape shown.
Suggest how it could be improved. (7
marks)
 |
| Figure 4 |
Notes
for answers
This
is a photograph of the Dharavi
slum in Mumbai from the National Geographic
magazine. It writes of the photo: .Failed urban renewal attempts
stick out above a warren of metal-roofed shacks. Built to provide
more modern facilities, the towers became dilapidated after only a
few years because of poor maintenance. A current redevelopment plan
calls for razing all slum housing in Dharavi
and replacing it with more
high-rises. But the free housing promised will house only a fraction
of those losing their homes..
Candidates
are likely to recognise the classic signs of shanty town development,
with its high density of population, poor sanitation and other
service provision, etc. All of this will be creditworthy at Level 1.
Commentary
will access Level 2. Improvements given could include self-help
schemes, sites and services schemes, total redevelopment.
Mark
scheme
Level
1 (1-4 marks) (mid point 3))
Simple generalised statements of
conditions in such areas but without any sense that the photo has been
examined closely. No commentary.
Generalised statements of
improvement.
Level
2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)
Detailed description of features
that can be identified in the photo, e.g. the continuity of metal roofs,
the poor quality high rise flats that appear above them. Commentary on
the characteristics shown in the photograph. Statements of
improvement that could clearly apply to the area shown.
Explain the process of suburbanisation
and describe its effects. (8 marks)
Suburbanisation
has resulted in the outward growth of urban
development
that has engulfed surrounding villages and rural areas.
During
the mid- to late-twentieth century, this was facilitated by the growth
of public transport systems and the increased use of the private car.
The presence of railway lines and arterial roads has enabled relatively
wealthy commuters to live some distance away from their places
of work. To a large extent the towns and cities of the UK demonstrate
the effects of past suburbanisation. In the 1930s, there were
few planning controls and urban growth took place alongside main roads
- this was known as ribbon development. By the 1940s this growth,
and the subsequent growth between the .ribbons., became a cause
for concern. This led to the creation of green
belts -
areas of open
space and low-density land use around existing urban areas where
further development was strictly controlled.
Since
1950, suburban expansion has increased and has been better planned.
During the 1950s and 1960s large-scale construction of council
housing took place on the only land available which was the suburban
fringe. In the 1970s, there was a move towards home ownership,
which led to private housing estates being built, also on the urban
fringe. Building in these areas allowed people to have more land for
gardens and more public open space, compared with ousing areas nearer
the town centre.
The
edge of town, where there is more land available for car parking and
expansion, also became the favoured location for new offices, factories
and shopping outlets. In a number of cases, the strict control of
the green belts was ignored (or at best modified) in the light of changing
circumstances.
Suburbanised
areas have experienced much change in recent years.
Local
shopping centres have been constructed, along with a large number
of primary schools and a smaller number of secondary schools.
Suburbanised
areas also demonstrate other key elements of the rural urban
fringe, such as residual woodlands and parks, cemeteries, golf courses
and playing fields. Many are now well-established housing areas,
highly sought after in the property market.
Suburbanisation
in developing countries is also valid.
Mark
scheme
Level
1 (1-4 marks) (mid point 3)
Simple generalised statements of
process and impact with no depth or detail, and not attributed to any
named area.
If only process or impact, MAX L1.
Level
2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)
More sophisticated and/or specific
statements of process and impact which may be attributed to a named
area, or demonstrate greater depth of understanding and/or knowledge.
(8
marks)
Evaluate the success of one
urban
regeneration scheme or policy that you have studied. (10
marks)
Notes
for answers
There
are a multitude of regeneration schemes that candidates can refer
to. Accept any form of regeneration from gentrification to propertyled schemes
to partnerships. Some may involve a single area within a city;
others may cover a whole city.
For
example, Sheffield:
several organisations have been created in the past
20 years with the purpose of regenerating the city of Sheffield.
The
Sheffield Development Corporation was established in 1988 in order
to regenerate Lower Don Valley area of Sheffield, which had been the
location of much of the city’s traditional industry. In its eleven year existence
it replaced much of the derelict land with new business ventures,
the most famous project being the creation of Meadowhall shopping
centre. More recently a new city economic development company,
Creative Sheffield, has been established and in April 2007, Sheffield
First for Investment, Sheffield One and the Cultural Industries Quarter
Agency were all integrated into this one organisation.
Some
of the projects proposed or currently under construction in Sheffield
are the improvement of Sheffield Midland Station, the New Retail
Quarter, Victoria Quays and Riverside Exchange, and the redevelopment
of The Moor shopping district.
As
well as these large-scale projects, there are lots of other public works
buildings, luxury accommodation and office space is being built in the
city. The city centre population is expected to increase from 5000 in 2005,
to 15 000 by 2015. £250 million has also been invested in the city
during the first half of 2005.
Mark
scheme
Level
1 (1-4 marks) (mid point 3)
Simple statements of urban
regeneration schemes/policies which could apply to any area. No specific
detail provided, nor any attempt to assess success.
Level
2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)
Specific descriptive statements of
an urban regeneration scheme/policy some of which can be clearly
attributed to a named example.
Assessment is tentative and
implicit.
Level
3 (9-10 marks) (mid point 9)
A fully developed answer, with good
elaboration and clear detail of the chosen urban regeneration
scheme/policy. Assessment is explicit.
